Climate change impacts mountain communities in Nepal with increasing vulnerability. Because of their significance in the global water cycle, often referred to as "Water Towers of the World," and "Roof of the World," these mountain ecosystems are relatively few across the world, with glacier- and snow-fed rivers supplying freshwater to nearly half the world’s population and most of the world's drylands. Most of this freshwater is from glaciers, snow melt, and lakes at high altitudes. Water supplies from glaciers are becoming increasingly insecure with warming because glaciers are shrinking in size at incredible rates, increasing natural disaster risks, and harming local economies across the climate spectrum.
 Significant Effects in Sindhupalchowk:

• Glacier melting and GLOFs: The rapid melting of glaciers is affecting water supply and river flows. In the first instance; many population will suffer the negative impacts of rapid water surges. Over time, however, diminished supply should be expected as glaciers decline. In addition to water supply issues, melting glaciers also increases the probability of Glacial Lake Outburst Flooding (GLOFs), which can happen when lakes formed by melting ice (glacier lakes) overtopped their natural barriers leading to massive flooding that may have serious consequences on lives, communities, and infrastructure downstream of (the) glacial lakes

• Declining Agriculture: There has been a dramatic decline in farming productivity in Sindhupalchowk over the past 20 years. The decline in productivity has occurred as rainfall and temperature has become increasingly erratic. Farmers are gradually abandoning traditional crops such as rice, wheat, and maize, and consequently growing seasons have become increasingly unpredictable. Warmer conditions have also encouraged insects and disease which will further compound crop loss. Additionally, as glaciers decline water flow into agricultural irrigation systems has also diminished significantly which also reduces water supply with higher frequency of drought events. All of this will lead to crop failures, food insecurity, and loss of income.
•Tourism Impacts: Climate change has had a direct negative impact on tourism as it relates to adventure trekking. Increasingly erratic weather and the threat of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF) have increased the risks associated with trekking routes and have shortened the trekking seasons. As a result, the number of tourists during peak trekking times has decreased, and income generated by local businesses, including guides, porters, and lodges, has also decreased. The growth of incidences of GLOFs threatens lives, infrastructure, farmland, and economic stability, particularly in areas dependent on tourism.

Community Adaptation:

– Migration and Remittances: As agriculture becomes increasingly difficult and disasters occur frequently, many people are migrating internally within Nepal and abroad to find work. Remittances sent back home are essential for supporting families, mitigating farming losses from disasters, and building financial resilience. This migration and remittances are used to improve farming practice, build infrastructure, and prepare for disasters. For example, between 2005 and 2020 the percentage of migrating households increased from 30% to 60%, and average migration income increased from $800 per household to $2,200 per household annually.

–Challenges of Migration: While migration is typically seen as an expense that relieves financing, it creates labor shortages, family disconnectedness, and loss of traditional farming knowledge. Families that lose migrants are left highly vulnerable. Additionally, many farms lack the technical assistance, infrastructure, and governmental services to appropriately address climate risks, and many times communities will not have early warning signals for disasters (e.g. GLOFs, landslides, etc.).

Recommendations:

The rather limited study makes clear points about local adaptation and offers several suggestions:

• Develop and promote climate-resilient / climate-informed farming practices e.g. drought-resistant crops and irrigation.

• Develop and enhance disaster risk reduction (DRR), through the building of infrastructure, and early warning systems for GLOFs.

• Conduct a more extensive exploration of alternative livelihoods to reduce some of the reliance on farming and migration.

• Better support families able to participate in migration, but not making that transition but to ensure adaptation is inclusive.

These last recommendations provide excellent direction for any organizations and policy-makers working in mitigating climate change in mountain space.